Speech
Language and the Brain
(666 words)
The question, “What part of the brain controls language?” appears straightforward, but the answer is considerably more complex. Although researchers have identified several brain regions associated with language processing, it remains unclear precisely how the brain determines the combination of words required to formulate and communicate a particular message. Linguistic theories provide models for describing the structure and use of language; however, these models do not necessarily explain the underlying neurological mechanisms through which language is produced and understood. Consequently, attempts to explain the relationship between language and brain function must be understood as theoretical interpretations informed by empirical evidence.
Language functions are generally associated with the left hemisphere of the brain, particularly in the majority of right-handed individuals. This phenomenon is consistent with the broader principle of cerebral lateralisation, whereby each hemisphere is primarily responsible for controlling movement and sensation on the opposite side of the body. Thus, the left hemisphere generally controls the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls the left. Language processing, however, is not simply a function of a single, localised “language centre.” Rather, it involves a complex network of interconnected regions. Evidence for the importance of the left hemisphere can be observed in individuals who experience brain injury, tumours, or other neurological disorders. Damage to areas of the left hemisphere can result in significant impairments to speech and language, although the nature and severity of these impairments vary considerably between individuals.
An illustrative neurological case occurred in Norway during the 1940s. A woman identified as Astrid L. sustained a severe injury to the left side of her brain as a result of an accident during an air raid. Following the injury, she regained consciousness but was paralysed on her right side and initially unable to speak. Over time, she demonstrated substantial neurological recovery: she regained the ability to walk independently and eventually spoke fluently. Nevertheless, her speech was notably different from that of other Norwegian speakers, particularly in its lack of the characteristic Norwegian accent. This case illustrates the complexity and adaptability of the human brain and demonstrates that the recovery of language ability following neurological damage does not necessarily involve a simple restoration of the functions originally performed by the damaged regions.
Many theories concerning the neurological basis of language have been informed by observations of patients who have experienced brain damage. One useful analogy is to compare the brain with an electrical system in a building. If a fuse fails and electricity is lost to a particular room, the system may potentially be rewired so that electrical power can reach the affected area through an alternative route. Similarly, the brain possesses a degree of neuroplasticity, enabling neural networks to reorganise and, under certain circumstances, compensate for damage to particular regions. The ability of individuals to acquire new motor skills also provides evidence of the brain’s adaptability. For example, a person who is predominantly right-handed may learn to write with the left hand. Such learning requires not only the development and coordination of new muscular movements but also changes in the neural processes responsible for controlling those movements.
Although there is substantial evidence that language functions are predominantly associated with the left hemisphere in most individuals, it would be inaccurate to conclude that language is controlled by one clearly defined location. Language production and comprehension involve multiple interacting regions and processes, and the precise contribution of each region remains an area of ongoing research. Furthermore, individual differences and the brain’s capacity for reorganisation complicate attempts to identify a universal neurological location for language.
It is therefore important to avoid overly simplistic conclusions about the relationship between language and the brain. Human language is a highly complex cognitive phenomenon, and our understanding of its neurological basis remains incomplete. While modern neuroscience has provided considerable insight into the brain regions and networks associated with language, the precise physical processes through which the brain enables an individual to understand, formulate, and communicate linguistic meaning are not yet fully understood.
The Study of Language
(613 words)
Linguistics is the systematic study of language and, as such, should ideally be approached objectively. However, a fundamental methodological difficulty arises from the fact that humans are studying an aspect of their own behaviour and cognition. Moreover, language is the principal means through which we describe and analyse language itself. This reflexive relationship may introduce subjective assumptions that would potentially be less influential if language were being studied by an entirely external observer.
Communication is not exclusive to humans; numerous species use sounds and other signals to convey information. Although the precise complexity and semantic structure of non-human communication remain subjects of investigation, it is reasonable to consider how variations in factors such as pauses, pitch, tone, and repetition may contribute to the transmission of meaning. Visual stimuli may also assist in establishing associations between particular signals and specific situations or behaviours. For example, a child’s scream or a snake’s hiss commonly occurs in particular contexts and may function as a signal of distress, threat, or danger. By observing recurring sounds within different environmental and behavioural contexts, researchers can therefore develop hypotheses concerning the potential meanings and functions of these signals.
Humans possess a particular advantage in the study of language because we are capable of distinguishing between involuntary physiological sounds, such as sneezing or coughing, and deliberate linguistic communication. We recognise that language consists of structured units, including words, which combine according to particular grammatical and semantic principles. Nevertheless, it is important to avoid assuming that linguistic units possess identical meanings across different languages. Words are embedded within the cultural and conceptual systems of the communities that use them, and consequently, their meanings may not correspond precisely to apparently equivalent terms in another language.
For example, the Navajo term shima is commonly translated into English as ‘mother’. However, such a translation may not fully encompass the conceptual range of the original term. Its meaning can extend beyond the biological relationship implied by the English word ‘mother’, incorporating broader notions associated with nurturing and the giving of life. Consequently, concepts such as the earth or trees may be understood within a broader semantic framework associated with motherhood. This illustrates the limitations of assuming that direct lexical equivalents necessarily possess identical semantic or cultural significance across languages.
Another important consideration, particularly in relation to English, is the distinction between written and spoken language. Orthographic representation does not always correspond directly to phonetic realisation; that is, the spelling of a word does not necessarily indicate how it is pronounced. This discrepancy creates challenges for the systematic representation and comparison of speech sounds and contributed to the development of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA provides a standardised system for representing the sounds of spoken language, enabling researchers to describe pronunciation independently of conventional orthographic systems. In this respect, the IPA represents a highly systematic and scientific approach to the analysis of language. There is also a certain methodological irony in the fact that a specialised symbolic system must be employed to describe and analyse the sounds of the languages through which humans ordinarily communicate.
The scope of linguistics extends beyond the analysis of language itself and intersects with numerous other academic disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and philosophy. Although linguistics is sometimes classified within the humanities because of its close relationship with culture, society, and human thought, its methodologies frequently involve systematic observation, empirical investigation, classification, and analysis. Consequently, linguistics occupies an interdisciplinary position, combining aspects of both the humanities and the sciences. Its scientific character derives not simply from the subject matter it investigates, but from the systematic and evidence-based methods employed to understand the structure, development, acquisition, and use of human language.
Homo loquens
(540 words)
Homo sapiens describes a species capable of thought, while homo loquens is used to describe a species capable of speech. Humans are unique in their ability to communicate through complex speech and language. Animal calls represent a much more limited form of vocal communication. Animals are also capable of making facial expressions, using hand movements, and communicating through touch, just as humans do. However, what distinguishes us from other animals is our use of language. The basis of chimpanzee society is grooming, or cleaning one another, whereas human society is largely based on speech and language. The development of vocal communication in human beings has been a long process, dating as far back as five to eight million years ago.
Language is primarily vocal, although it can also be written. Even today, many people remain illiterate and therefore rely primarily on spoken language. Speech is often closely connected to other forms of non-verbal behaviour. While speaking, body language can play an important role in communication. Non-verbal communication, including gestures, has a language of its own. Gestures that are acceptable in some cultures may be offensive or inappropriate in others.
Tone of voice is also an important aspect of communication. Most of us can relate to the familiar example of a mother calling her child. When the mother first calls the child, her voice may be calm and normal. However, as the child continues to play and ignores her, the mother’s tone of voice may change, often becoming more forceful and with greater emphasis placed on each syllable of the child’s name.
Language has two different layers. Smaller units, such as letters and sounds, may have little or no meaning on their own. However, these units can be combined to form meaningful words. For example, the letters s, t, o, and p can be combined to form the word “stop.” This system of combining smaller, meaningless units to create meaningful words is a distinctive feature of human language.
Another feature of the English language is stress. By shifting the stress placed on a word, its pronunciation and meaning can change. For example, “wind” can be pronounced differently depending on its meaning.
Another feature of language is redundancy. One advantage of redundancy is that it makes speech easier to understand, even when some sounds or words are unclear or misheard.
Language is not determined entirely by our genes. A person who grows up speaking Spanish will generally learn Spanish as a child because they are exposed to it in their environment. For example, if a baby born in Peru were adopted and moved to Thailand, the child would most likely grow up speaking Thai rather than Spanish. According to Noam Chomsky, often referred to as the “Godfather of Linguistics,” some of our language abilities may have a genetic basis.
Language is thought to have emerged in modern humans approximately 100,000 years ago and subsequently spread throughout the world.
Linguists primarily focus on the structure and development of existing languages, while paying less attention to the precise origins of language itself. Nevertheless, the study of linguistic evolution provides valuable insight into human development. As one perspective suggests, studying linguistic evolution is “a good way to appreciate what has made our species so remarkable.”
Dealing with War – in the eyes of Speeches by Winston Churchill and Tony Blair
The primary conspicuous similarity of these leaders was the fact that they were both faced with ruthless opposition; Churchill with Hitler and Blair with Hussein. If Blair and Churchill were the righteous democratic free willed chiefs, the other leaders had to be ones where only banishment to the fiery depths was the only option. Equally, Blair and Churchill both refer to their adversaries as ‘tyrants’; men opposed to the rules of law and dignity of the human race. Churchill says Hitler’s regime is a ‘monstrous tyranny’. These words show power over others is what makes a monster and Hitler’s behavior as a human is like a monster when he indulged in his impulse for cruelty and domination. Hitler is like a monstrous minotaur; a guardian of hell seen in Dante’s L’Inferno. Likewise, Blair alludes to the word tyrant when he calls Husain’s leadership a ‘tyrannical regime’. Husain’s regime, Blair says, is a ‘begetter of chaos’. The English public is meant to see this tyrant’s prolonged existence leading to chaos as an abyss where a formless state of the world is to be had. From both British leaders’ statements, people are meant to feel a certain kind loathing for both of the harsh oppressors. Comparably, these two Prime Minister’s adversaries are the lowest form of life where only disfigured ideas will come from them.
Moreover, the darker the picture these two orators portray the more disgust there is for their opponents’ ways. Churchill calls Hitler’s evil days as ‘never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime’. These are grim facts that justify the right to stop this despicable onslaught against human existence. By a similar measure, Blair goes into detail as he attacks the rule of Husain as he expresses his repulsion to ‘the brutality of the repression’ with ‘barbaric prisons’ in the face of ‘pitiless terror’. Blair’s speech has details to justify the severity of the terror while Churchill’s few words hit hard.
In spite of the similarities, these two speeches, coming at a time when a decision had to be made as the public waited in anticipation, do differ. Churchill is the one that becomes the major speaker showing his capability as a rebel rouser.
So, by contrast, Churchill generates more of a powerful speech. His country is at war and he needs to find moral boosting rhetoric to implore everyone to be with him. He uses short phrases to make his delivery work by way of hypophora where he raises a question and immediately answers it. This elevates his rhetoric. He says ‘What is our aim?’ and his answer is ‘Victory’. He also increases this rhetoric by the repetition of the word ‘Victory’ within four subsequent phrases that reinforces his answer on how the war will be won. This is opposed to Blair’s speech as there is the feeling he is opposed to going straight to war as with words ‘we consulted inspectors’, and the resentment to Husain ‘still countries hesitated’. He actually uses some irony as he says ‘our own aim to placate is implacable’. Blair is against a terrible system of terror and wants to stop any form of it although Hussain has been allowed to purport his methods of controlling his country and threatening the world. Blair continually tells us that Husain has had so many warnings saying countries have just been having a ‘diplomatic dance’ with Hussain. Blair is also dissimilar to Churchill in that he will bring on war with Husain but only with the help of allied countries. In contrast, the feeling is that Churchill was declaring his battle against Hitler on his own albeit with help if others were to follow. Blair would inevitably not invade Iraq without help; however, Churchill knew his own mission.
To conclude these two speeches had two leaders at the early stages of war. They differ in many ways, but similarly, show two leaders with forthright ideas and plans for action. Winston Churchill showed his great oratory skills; his concise and succinct style had a quality of putting fire in everyone’s belly to move forward with him. His sound bite skills showed he was more effective than the drawn out dialogue of Tony Blair. Tony Blair’s long speech brought to light that he had so much to consider as to whether he should go to war, and his war decisions were not ultimately all his. This essay has highlighted the comparing and contrasting styles of language from these two British Prime Ministers and shown how they went about getting their message across to their country and the world.
(979 Words)
References/Works Cited
1Minotaur, Circle 7, cantos 12-17, University of Texas at Austin, Retrieved 6July 2011, from: http://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/circle7.html
2Dante Alighieri, The Inferno, trans. John Ciardi (Mentor Books: New York, 1954), Canto XII
3 Alliteration, dictionary.com, Retrieved 6 July 2011, from; http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alliteration
McRae John, Boardman Roy, Reading Between the Lines (Cambridge University Press 1984) Page 31
Blair, Tony (18th March 2003) Full text: Tony Blair Speech. Guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 6 July 2011, from:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2003/mar/18/foreignpolicy.iraq1
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Guess the Audience using informative and persuasive speech
I was asked to write 5 presentations for various audiences using informative and persuasive speech. Ultimately, these presentations would be delivered or read for everyone to guess what was the target audience, topic, and style of speech.
1 – Persuasive speech about preparing for retirement: 20 College Students in a traditional classroom setting.
2 – Persuasive speech about adopting a regular exercise routine: Audience 16 factory workers.
3 – Informative speech about what constitutes a healthy diet: Audience 50 Kindergarten kids.
4 – informative speech about the benefits of a regular exercise program: audience men and women in their 60s.
5 – informative speech about what constitutes a healthy diet: audience 30 economically stressed women.
Guess the Audience
1 – Persuasive speech about preparing for retirement: 20 College Students in a traditional classroom setting
Good morning everyone today, I must welcome you all to the discussion on retirement. Of course, for the people here this may seem a distant thought, but what I have got to say today may change your thinking and make you realise what your future has instore and how you can plan for a better retirement. As students studying here at university, you are already putting plans in for your career which is a great basis to start. Knowledge is power. I can not emphasize this enough as a solid career path will help you as the world revolves around economic ups and downs. Many companies these days are having layoffs which can not be helped because of the global turndown. It is your job to be one of the valuable members of the staff and safeguard your future. With a good career, you can start to invest money which will see a payback as the years go by. So, keep this in mind as you study each day here at university. It may be hard now but the work you put in now will have a payback as you forge a career. So, with a good career also comes the money, and with being so young you have got to start building a nest egg. This means being a first-time house buyer. Once you are on the property ladder you have made a significant start to build your investments. In this respect, as the years go by you can climb up that property ladder. I must emphasize here that the important piece of advice here is to not think too high. We all want large fancy houses and fast cars but as a first home, you have to be modest. The last thing you want is to be cut down by the huge costs of paying extraordinarily high mortgages and debt. This way of thinking goes along with spending. If you are investing in your future it is not wise to start spending habits that will stop you from climbing the ladder and investing in your future. I would say if you look at a figure of 10% – 20% of your salary should, in reality, be put into your retirement plan each year while also looking at the age of retirement between 50 and 60. It may seem a long way off but through life, situations arise be they marriage, kids, and houses that need a lot of thought and also expense while still contributing to your retirement plan. These situations may upset your plan for retirement but with a level head and forward planning they can be overcome and your retirement plan will stay on track and you are in the best position because you are young and about to start your careers.
2 – Persuasive speech about adopting a regular exercise routine: Audience 16 factory workers
Welcome everyone to our company-sponsored program for improving health and fitness for all our employees. I will try today to give an overview of what the program is about and also to initiate a healthy kind of lifestyle that will not only benefit you as people but also you as our employees here at the factory. Of course, you have each had a health check, you know and I have seen some of the final health reports of some of our employees. We feel it is the company’s obligation to help our employees to succeed in their work which will be helped by a healthy workplace program. We acknowledge that many of our workers are middle-aged and programs like these are not easily jumped into. We will certainly not be pushing people into aggressive workouts. We recognise that programs will be run to fit the needs of employees. We have seen that some employees will need advice on how to start a fitness program but we do not see this as a problem more as a challenge. Again, this does not mean strenuous workouts and targets will not be the order of the day. So, although some reports were not as favourable as an employer would like we see this as our challenge to our employees and with everyone’s help, we feel we could have lasting results. For this program, each employee will have to sign up for the program. We feel with a contract, you are obligating to succeed in your work and health. One of the reasons for the program is to highlight is the growing cost of health care. We not only feel it here in the company but I am sure you feel it too. We feel by implementing the program we can cut down costs across the spectrum. We would like to adopt a culture in the factory where our workers feel healthier. We will make exercise a work goal. The company will also offer £1000 bonus for workers who go on the program. We will offer nutritional advice which follows onto the canteen.
3 – Informative speech about what constitutes a healthy diet: Audience 50 Kindergarten kids.
Good morning everyone. How are you today? Who is feeling healthy? Today, we are going to talk about eating. Let’s start, I want to ask you some quick questions and I want to see hands. First question, who likes McDonald? Good. Who likes KFC? And drinks, who likes Pepsi? And who likes cola? Now I would like to know if you think this food is healthy. Good. If I was to give you lunch today with a salad and orange juice, and an apple to finish who would like it? Okay, now I don’t see many hands. Why do you there are not many hands? The reason I asked you is that today we are going to talk about nutrition. Who knows about nutrition or knows what the word means? Well, the word nutrition talks about eating and giving your body the right food so you are strong and healthy. It is also about the right choices for choosing food when you go into the canteen at school and what you eat outside of school. I know we all watch television these days and you all watch cartoons so we see lots of adverts on television. There are so many adverts telling what to do and what to eat. But do we see any adverts for vegetables or fruit? That’s why I am here today to show that healthy eating is separate to what you see on the television. Let’s see I have two bottles here, one is water the other is Pepsi. Who wants Pepsi? Wow, you all want Pepsi. I also have here a pizza and a salad. Who wants the pizza? Ok from all the hands I see here many of you would like the pizza and the Pepsi. Pizza is nice but it contains a lot of fat and grease. And what does fat do to our bodies? Yes, it makes us fat. And the Pepsi has a lot of sugar. This is not just bad for our teeth it is also bad for our bodies. So, kids with the help from your teachers, from next week I want you to start writing a health diary. I want you to ask your mum about healthy food and ask her if every meal is healthy. I want to see everyone eating a range of food because they all offer different nutritional benefits. Fruits and vegetables are low in fat while low-fat dairy products and lean meat helps. Again, ask your mother to check. This does not mean you have to give up your KFC or Pepsi as long as your diet is full of nutrients and fibre and above all exercise too.
4 -informative speech about the benefits of a regular exercise program: audience men and women in their 60s.
Welcome, today I am going to give a speech about the benefits of regular exercise. Some of you may think about exercise and get a little scared. I am not talking about going to the gym three nights a week or strenuous workouts. I think we are all a little old for this. I am talking about getting yourself mobile and not spending your days at home. Regular exercise has many benefits for every aspect of your life. Being unfit does not mean you can not get fit. The important factor here is there it may reduce the risk of some problems occurring. We want people to feel healthy and feel positive. We need to emphasize that it is a known fact that healthy exercise reduces the risk of heart disease. I would like you to keep that in mind. The first piece of advice with exercise would be to do 20 – 40 minutes of aerobic exercise 3- 5 days a week. This might sound extreme but again we do not mean excessive workouts. Locally, these kinds of workouts are held at the local sports centre and are expertly done to help older age retired persons here in the town. They are not only about exercise too. I went down there the other week and there were about 20 older people, male and female. After having a good time exercising they all went for lunch together. I joined them and it was very interesting and fun. By the way, they are also planning a coastal walk at the weekend. They plan to go to the beach and walk for 2 miles along the coast. I think this will be a great outing. There is also a guide to taking them so it will be informative as well. Of course, we are not just talking about your body this outing will see the benefits in your brain. This may seem a little strange talking about your brain but as you know as we get older our memory starts to fade a little so these little trips are ways to get around your local town and keep everyone active. So, you see I am here today not just to promote healthy living but a more enjoyable way of getting healthy where you can meet new friends and spend your time having a fun time. Another important aspect is your mood if we will feel healthy we feel good inside which shows when people see you happy. Moreover, with a little bit of exercise every day you can sleep better. Again, this is what we are here today to promote. I have all the phone numbers and websites for the sports centre, the coastal walk, and the senior citizens social club. Please see me after and I will let you have them.
5 – informative speech about what constitutes a healthy diet: audience 30 economically stressed women.
Today, we are going to talk about eating healthily on a budget. Yes, the global downturn has pushed the price of food up that even middle-class people are feeling the pinch but what we are here today to talk about is what constitutes a healthy diet for less well-off families. Firstly, you and your children, if you are looking for a cheaper option, then fruit and vegetables and other whole foods are the best way. This is healthy and can be cheap. A quick walk around your local market and your local supermarket will help you compare prices to see how you can budget your shopping costs. But you should be careful there is a lot of marketing and merchandising done to make you buy certain foods and brands. I am should you walk into a supermarket and all the packages and adverts look appealing but we are telling you to look past this. Also when you watch TV you see adverts for Fast Food, one example is junk food, McDonald’s looks good in the adverts but basically, it is junk food which is not healthy and expensive if you add up a monthly outing to this fast-food restaurant. This fast food and other convenience foods like this just increase your shopping bill. We are asking you to see past this and realise they just want you to buy their food. That’s why you never see the price in the advert. We need you to recognise that fruit and vegetables are the basic building blocks of healthy and nutritious eating and much cheaper than processed foods. I can not stress enough that poor diet leads to chronic diseases like cancer or heart disease. This is why today we have come here to highlight the problem and help economically challenged families think more about how they spend their money on food. Let me give you an example on how to cut down costs. Pre-packaged foods are usually more expensive and not good for you. For example, cheap oatmeal for breakfast can be purchased in large bags. For breakfast, you can add fruit to give flavour. All this gives you a cheap meal and does away with large packaging. Also when buying it is sometimes better to buy big boxes of whole wheat pasta and rice. This saves on trips to the supermarket and packaging. Another option is potatoes and eggs which can be used in many ways to create a lovely cheap meal. Eggs contain a lot of protein and vitamin C. Another important point to remember is that supermarkets have schemes to reduce prices. So, you should check with them how you can join this. Also, you should go down to the market or farmers’ markets this could be a valuable trip to check prices out.
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