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On what basis can or should we treat a text a canonical? Discuss with reference to two texts
(Words 1271)
The treatment of a text considered canonical can take many individual forms, particularly when it is appraised as life-enhancing. A canonical text reaches thoughts and ideas that the reader might never have imagined. It should possess a value that makes it meaningful to our understanding of what it means to be human, while remaining accessible to the modern reader. For a contemporary reader, Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise Lost are two works of immense structural and narrative complexity that take the reader on a journey into another world. They rank as canonical texts and can be treated as such.
A canonical story must possess structure, contrasts, and literary devices that help to develop and inform its major themes and motifs. One of Dante’s major concerns was political conflict. He lived through the political turmoil of Italy, and the reader can see how he uses these circumstances in his epic poem to condemn political figures by placing them throughout the circles of Hell. He gives them what he considers to be their just retribution. The poem speaks for Dante, allowing him to transform contemporary political events into poetic subject matter. His belief that Church and state should exist as separate powers on Earth is expressed through a courageous and highly personal political vision. For good measure, he also incorporates ancient literary figures, referring to classical writers and poets such as Homer, Ovid, and Virgil.
Dante’s poem is an overarching allegory. It explores its themes through dozens, even hundreds, of symbols, with one of its most important ideas being the punishment of sinners. Inferno is canonical because of the quality and scope of the poem, which creates and explores something far more substantial than the particular characters and places it describes. We find in Dante a fundamental idea: the creation of an imaginative correspondence between a soul’s sin on Earth and the punishment it receives in the afterlife. Dante’s complexity creates an entire universe.
This new universe is a crucial characteristic of Dante’s imagery. Dante took some of his ideas from another epic, The Odyssey, and established a relationship with Homer’s famous travel narrative. To put the matter simply, Dante thrusts before us a worldview and a sense of cultural completeness. As we move through the work, we find the universe arranged from the presence of God down to Earth and then into increasingly confined circles, stage by stage, towards the depths of sin.
Dante makes us experience the exploration of complex questions about individual and social purpose. The poem concerns a system of belief, the relationship between past traditions and future prospects, and the major events that help define a culture and its path towards Christian understanding. Dante presents a remarkable complexity of ideas. The aesthetic unity and breadth of the epic bring before us a comprehensive picture of an entire culture in a way that an ordinary narrative, no matter how exciting, cannot.
Dante’s subject matter makes the reader recognise the moral implications of abandoning an understanding of the world and the heavens that is loaded with spiritual meaning. The enormous scale of the poem is coupled with the clarity and variety of its immediate details. The dramatic quality of human conversation is placed alongside sections of theological doctrine, while the emotional tone constantly shifts between humour, terror, disgust, anger, and fear. There is also a constant sense of movement, up and down and around, all coordinated by the developing awareness of the pilgrim narrator, who must make emotional and conceptual sense of everything he encounters. Inferno is therefore a truly canonical work.
Milton was a rebel because he identified with the revolutionary cause, and his masterpiece, also of epic proportions, is concerned with rebellion and its consequences. As a Puritan, Milton’s political and religious convictions were often opposed to royal authority. Paradise Lost explains an entire theology. It is concerned with the coming of sin into the world through the temptation of Adam and Eve by Satan after his defeat in Heaven. If Milton has attempted to “justify the ways of God to men,” then our questions about humanity’s relationship with God are addressed through the poem’s theological framework.
The success of Milton’s explanation, of course, depends on whether the reader accepts the Christian worldview, and even whether the reader accepts Milton’s particular form of Christian individualism. Like Dante, Milton creates his own universe. The world is not simply the Earth; it is the entire universe within Milton’s imagined cosmos.
Milton’s achievement and the poem’s canonical status must also be considered in relation to its subject matter and its position within the epic tradition. Milton introduces the central theme of the entire poem and presents us with Satan and the fallen angels. He also makes it clear that the reader is encountering an epic poem. In order to place himself within the canonical epic tradition of The Odyssey and The Aeneid, Milton employs devices such as the invocation, epic similes, and catalogues. These are used heavily in the first two books to establish the credentials of Paradise Lost as an epic.
Paradise Lost begins with Milton’s prose summary, “The Argument.” He uses the word “argument” in the sense of “subject matter” rather than the modern meaning of a verbal clash. The prose summary tells the reader the story and can therefore be used as a reference point. In the poem, the reader encounters one of its central characters, Satan. Milton encourages the reader to consider whether Satan is a hero or a villain.
It is obvious from the first book that Satan possesses qualities that many readers admire. He is a fearless leader, eloquent, inspiring, resourceful, and even sympathetic to the suffering of his followers. Is he portrayed with these virtues because Milton wants to demonstrate how easily we can be deceived by heroic qualities? Has the reader ever found themselves attracted to people who ultimately proved harmful to them? It is unfortunately easy to identify with Satan when the reader first encounters him in the imaginary landscape of Hell.
Milton makes this experience accessible to the modern reader. All readers have experienced anger, bitterness, and a desire for revenge after a confrontation with authority. These may be small-scale personal grievances, but the emotions can still be intense. Satan’s grievances, however, result from his conflict with God and therefore have universal consequences. He wants to strike back at God for casting him into a dark and desolate place, and he intends to do so by bringing others down with him.
Like Dante, Milton was trained within the strictest academic education that his age could provide. The sources of Paradise Lost reflect Milton’s enormous range of reading. The story of Adam and Eve and the temptation comes from the opening chapters of the Book of Genesis. The vast majority of the poem’s allusions and references are to the Bible and to Greek and Latin classics. There are also references to Arthurian legend, Italian epics, and earlier English literature, especially the work of Spenser, the author of the moral epic The Faerie Queene. This immense catalogue of literary, religious, and cultural references contributes to the depth and complexity expected of a canonical text.
The reader could argue that Milton and Dante emerged from similar intellectual traditions. Milton drew some ideas from Dante, but each poet created a powerful epic that responded to the political, religious, and cultural circumstances of his own time. Their poems remain relevant because they continue to raise questions about politics, morality, religion, rebellion, sin, human nature, and our relationship with the divine. Their continuing ability to challenge and engage readers helps to establish them as enduring canonical texts.
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Thailand flood 2011
(448 words)
Thailand is prone to rainy seasons and granted too, there is an expectation Thailand will flood during these rainy seasons. Thailand has also experienced catastrophic floods before, the most recent being in 1995. However, what is not granted is when a newly industrialized country with the second-largest economy in Asia fails to manage a situation it has had so much experience in handling and lets a situation get so far out of control.
This year’s monsoon season was like no other. However, then, why, like in recent years, was the water build-up created from the unusually heavy monsoons not released. Why were there questions about drainage systems left neglected and un-dredged for years, and why was there no system in place in the event of such a situation?
While admittedly it can be difficult to understand Thailand’s politics and systems of governance, it was clear for all to see that everything fell apart during the recent flooding situation.
The response from the powers that be was seriously questioned. Serious mismanagement of information by inter agencies and ministries releasing conflicting information, and media outlets competing in a bid to see who could sensationalise the situation the most led to the people of Thailand ending up confused, frustrated, and frightened.
As such virtual anarchy broke out as supermarket shelves were left empty due to panic buying, People fortified their houses with sandbags and concrete walls, abandoned cars were left on bridges and highways and neighbouring provinces began fighting amongst one another, while senior political figures seemed to use the situation to bolster their image and point the finger.
Was this how Thailand wished herself to be seen by the rest of the world?
It has to be said that this is not the first government that has diverted incoming water. It has happened before as recently as last year.
The question is: why do governments both past and present continue to allow cities industrial zones, highways, and other infrastructure to build in areas that are prone to flooding.
It appears truly bizarre, does it not, that a country lures multinational companies and investors such as Honda, Ford, and Toyota to their shores with promises of low wages, great infrastructure, and free trade zones only to stand by and let their 14,000 factories and warehouses be destroyed by floodwater. It could have been prevented, that is, were preventative measures put in place?
It is disappointing that in this day and age a fast-developing country puts individual political and financial agendas before the welfare of the country. It has the air of a lack of respect and care for its people and offers little in the way of compensation for its victims.
How are laws made in England?
(1049 words)
In an ever-changing society, individuals continually develop new forms of leisure and entertainment. In England, alcohol consumption is a common feature of social and recreational activities, particularly within pubs and clubs. Excessive alcohol consumption, including drinking competitions in which participants consume large quantities of alcohol over short periods, can nevertheless contribute to serious health and social consequences. Although such activities may be regarded by participants as forms of entertainment, the Government has a responsibility to address the risks associated with excessive alcohol consumption, particularly alcohol-related illness and mortality. One mechanism through which the Government seeks to regulate such behaviour is the creation and implementation of legislation.
Laws are established to provide a framework of social order and to regulate behaviour by determining what individuals may or may not lawfully do. The process of creating legislation through Government Bills is, however, neither immediate nor straightforward. A proposed Bill must pass through several stages of parliamentary scrutiny and debate before it can become law. These stages include consideration by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, followed by Royal Assent from the Monarch.
The first stage in the legislative process is the formulation of the Bill. At this stage, the Government determines the policy objectives and the specific provisions that will eventually be incorporated into the proposed legislation. Ministers and civil servants are involved in developing the policy, while Government lawyers are responsible for drafting the Bill. Prior to the formal introduction of legislation, the Government may publish a Green Paper, which sets out proposals for consultation and allows interested parties and the wider public to consider and comment upon the proposed policy. Following consultation and further development, the Government may produce a more detailed proposal before the legislation is formally introduced to Parliament.
Once the Bill has been approved for introduction, it enters the First Reading in the House of Commons. The First Reading is primarily a formal stage during which the Bill is introduced and its title is read. There is generally little or no substantive debate at this point. The Bill subsequently proceeds to the Second Reading, which represents the first significant opportunity for Members of Parliament to debate its underlying principles and objectives. At this stage, Members consider the purpose and general content of the Bill, and the Government and opposition parties are able to present their respective arguments. The length and intensity of the debate may vary depending upon the significance and controversial nature of the proposed legislation.
Following the Second Reading, the Bill proceeds to the Committee Stage. A Public Bill Committee, consisting of a selected group of Members of Parliament, examines the Bill in considerable detail. Unlike the Second Reading, which focuses primarily on the general principles of the legislation, the Committee Stage considers the individual clauses and provisions of the Bill. Members may propose amendments where they believe changes are necessary. This stage provides an important opportunity for detailed parliamentary scrutiny and may result in significant alterations to the original proposals.
Once the Committee Stage has been completed, the Bill proceeds to the Report Stage. At this stage, the Bill, including any amendments made by the committee, is considered by the wider House of Commons. Members who were not involved in the Committee Stage are therefore able to examine the proposed legislation and suggest further amendments. The length of the Report Stage can vary considerably depending on the complexity and controversial nature of the Bill. This stage ensures that the legislation receives further scrutiny before the final debate in the House of Commons.
The Bill then proceeds to the Third Reading, which represents the final stage of consideration in the House of Commons. Debate at this stage focuses on the Bill as a whole, including any amendments that have been made during the preceding stages. Members of Parliament have the opportunity to consider whether the Bill, in its revised form, should be approved. If the House of Commons agrees to the Bill, it is subsequently passed to the House of Lords for consideration.
The House of Lords undertakes a similar process of parliamentary scrutiny. The Bill is considered through its First Reading, Second Reading, Committee Stage, Report Stage and Third Reading. Members of the House of Lords may propose amendments to the legislation, providing an additional level of scrutiny. If amendments are made, the Bill is returned to the House of Commons, where Members consider whether to accept or reject the proposed changes. This process may result in the Bill moving between the two Houses until agreement is reached on its final wording. The relationship between the two Houses is governed by constitutional principles and parliamentary legislation, including the Parliament Acts, which limit the circumstances in which the House of Lords can prevent legislation from becoming law.
Once both Houses have agreed on the final text of the Bill, it is presented to the Monarch for Royal Assent. Royal Assent is the formal approval required for a Bill to become an Act of Parliament. Although the Monarch formally possesses the power to refuse Royal Assent, this has not occurred in modern constitutional practice and is regarded as a constitutional formality. Following Royal Assent, the legislation becomes law, although the Act may specify a particular date on which its provisions will come into force.
The legislative process demonstrates that the creation of laws in England is not an immediate response to social problems but a structured procedure involving several stages of consideration, debate and scrutiny. Although legislation may originate from concerns about issues such as excessive alcohol consumption and alcohol-related deaths, a proposed solution must undergo extensive parliamentary examination before it can become law. The involvement of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Monarch provides a series of constitutional stages intended to ensure that legislation is carefully considered before it takes effect.
Consequently, although individuals affected by new legislation may question its necessity, purpose or effectiveness, the parliamentary process is designed to ensure that proposed laws are subject to democratic debate and scrutiny. Legislation concerning alcohol consumption, for example, may be introduced with the objective of protecting public health and reducing the social and economic consequences associated with excessive drinking. The legislative process therefore seeks to balance individual freedom with the wider interests and well-being of society.
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